What We Bring

Notes

Notes

Full publication details for every source appear in Sources and Further Reading.

Chapter 1: The Guest Is on Our Head

  1. Service sector share of Canadian GDP. Statistics Canada. (2024). Gross domestic product (GDP) at basic prices, by industry, annual [Data table; Table 36-10-0434-01]. Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3610043401

  2. Arab immigrant population, 2021 Census. Statistics Canada. (2025). Portrait of the Arab populations in Canada: Diversity and socioeconomic outcomes (Catalogue no. 89-657-X2025005). https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-657-x/89-657-x2025005-eng.htm

  3. Immigrant employment concentration in services. Akbari, A. H., & Rankaduwa, W. (2008). Socioeconomic profiles of immigrants in the four Atlantic provinces—Phase II: Focus on vibrant communities. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/ircc/migration/ircc/english/pdf/research-stats/socioeconomic.pdf

  4. Cultural dimensions of Arab and Canadian societies. Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1014

  5. Service scripts as unwritten cultural rules. Stauss, B., & Mang, P. (1999). “Culture shocks” in inter-cultural service encounters? Journal of Services Marketing, 13(4/5), 329–346. https://doi.org/10.1108/08876049910282583

  6. Cultural values and service quality evaluation. Basfirinci, C., & Mitra, A. (2014). A cross cultural investigation of airlines service quality through integration of SERVQUAL and the Kano model. Journal of Air Transport Management, 42, 239–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2014.11.005

  7. Perceived cultural distance in service encounters. Ang, T., Liou, R.-S., & Wei, S. (2018). Perceived cultural distance in intercultural service encounters: Does customer participation matter? Journal of Services Marketing, 32(5), 547–558. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSM-06-2017-0211

  8. Acculturation behaviours of frontline employees. Gaur, S. S., Sharma, P., Herjanto, H., & Kingshott, R. P. J. (2017). Impact of frontline service employees’ acculturation behaviors on customer satisfaction and commitment in intercultural service encounters. Journal of Service Theory and Practice, 27(6), 1105–1121. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSTP-08-2016-0138

Chapter 2: Fourteen People

  1. Heterogeneity of the Arab states. Almutairi, S., Heller, M., & Yen, D. (2020). Reclaiming the heterogeneity of the Arab states. Cross Cultural & Strategic Management, 27(2), 205–230. https://doi.org/10.1108/CCSM-09-2019-0170

  2. Saturation in qualitative interview samples. Guest, G., Bunce, A., & Johnson, L. (2006). How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability. Field Methods, 18(1), 59–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X05279903

Chapter 3: Why I Was Both Inside and Outside the Story

  1. Researcher positionality and reflexivity. Berger, R. (2015). Now I see it, now I don’t: Researcher’s position and reflexivity in qualitative research. Qualitative Research, 15(2), 219–234. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794112468475

  2. The insider-outsider position in qualitative research. Dwyer, S. C., & Buckle, J. L. (2009). The space between: On being an insider-outsider in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 8(1), 54–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690900800105

Chapter 4: When a Customer Becomes a Guest

  1. The SERVQUAL model. Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L. (1988). SERVQUAL: A multiple-item scale for measuring consumer perceptions of service quality. Journal of Retailing, 64(1), 12–40.

  2. Hofstede’s dimensions of national culture. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Sage.

Chapter 5: Respect Has a Different Language

  1. Power distance and the acceptance of inequality. Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1014

Chapter 6: When Nobody Tells You the Rules

  1. Reliability and assurance as service quality dimensions. Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L. (1988). SERVQUAL: A multiple-item scale for measuring consumer perceptions of service quality. Journal of Retailing, 64(1), 12–40.

  2. Expectation-Confirmation Theory. Oliver, R. L. (1980). A cognitive model of the antecedents and consequences of satisfaction decisions. Journal of Marketing Research, 17(4), 460–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378001700405

Chapter 7: Saying Goodbye to Inshallah

  1. High- and low-context communication in service encounters. Mattila, A. S. (1999). The role of culture in the service evaluation process. Journal of Service Research, 1(3), 250–261. https://doi.org/10.1177/109467059913006

Chapter 8: What We Keep and What We Change

  1. Berry’s acculturation framework. Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 5–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01087.x

  2. Acculturation as a dynamic negotiation. Berry, J. W. (2005). Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(6), 697–712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.07.013

  3. Stages of culture shock. Oberg, K. (1960). Cultural shock: Adjustment to new cultural environments. Practical Anthropology, os-7(4), 177–182. https://doi.org/10.1177/009182966000700405

  4. Acculturation and cross-cultural service outcomes. Gaur, S. S., Sharma, P., Herjanto, H., & Kingshott, R. P. J. (2017). Impact of frontline service employees’ acculturation behaviors on customer satisfaction and commitment in intercultural service encounters. Journal of Service Theory and Practice, 27(6), 1105–1121. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSTP-08-2016-0138

Chapter 9: Culture Is Not a Country

  1. Hofstede’s original treatment of the Arab world. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Sage.

  2. Methodological critique of Hofstede’s framework. McSweeney, B. (2002). Hofstede’s model of national cultural differences and their consequences: A triumph of faith—a failure of analysis. Human Relations, 55(1), 89–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726702551004

  3. National borders as cultural boundaries. Baskerville, R. F. (2003). Hofstede never studied culture. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 28(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0361-3682(01)00048-4

  4. A dynamic view of culture. Fang, T. (2003). A critique of Hofstede’s fifth national culture dimension. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 3(3), 347–368. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470595803003003006

  5. Culture as negotiated meaning rather than fixed trait. Holliday, A. (2011). Intercultural communication and ideology. Sage Publications.

  6. Orientalism and the framing of non-Western societies. Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism. Pantheon Books.

  7. Variation across Arab societies. Obeidat, B. Y., Shannak, R. O., Masa’deh, R., & Al-Jarrah, I. (2012). Toward better understanding for Arabian culture: Implications based on Hofstede’s cultural model. European Journal of Social Sciences, 28(4), 512–522.

  8. GLOBE data on Middle Eastern societies. Kabasakal, H., & Bodur, M. (2002). Arabic cluster: A bridge between East and West. Journal of World Business, 37(1), 40–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-9516(01)00073-6

  9. Management style differences between Arab states. Robertson, C. J., Al-Khatib, J. A., Al-Habib, M., & Lanoue, D. (2001). Beliefs about work in the Middle East and the convergence versus divergence of values. Journal of World Business, 36(3), 223–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-9516(01)00053-0

  10. Within-nation variation among Saudi managers. At-Twaijri, M. I., & Al-Muhaiza, I. A. (1996). Hofstede’s cultural dimensions in the GCC countries: An empirical investigation. International Journal of Value-Based Management, 9(2), 121–131. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00440149

  11. Bicultural identity among immigrant youth. Arnett, J. J. (2002). The psychology of globalization. American Psychologist, 57(10), 774–783. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.10.774

  12. Arab societies, culture and state. Barakat, H. (1993). The Arab world: Society, culture, and state. University of California Press.

  13. Population of the Arab states. World Bank. (n.d.). Population, total [Data set]. World Development Indicators. Retrieved February 14, 2025, from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL

  14. Composition of Canada’s Arab population. Statistics Canada. (2025). Portrait of the Arab populations in Canada: Diversity and socioeconomic outcomes (Catalogue no. 89-657-X2025005). https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-657-x/89-657-x2025005-eng.htm

Chapter 10: What Managers Need to See

  1. Diversity management, employee satisfaction and service quality. Bouranta, N., Psomas, E., & Pantouvakis, A. (2019a). Developing and testing a training framework for frontline employees in culturally diverse service encounters. Journal of Services Marketing, 33(3), 349–361.

  2. Retention economics versus replacement cost. Pettingell, S. L., Houseworth, J., Tichá, R., Kramme, J. E., & Hewitt, A. S. (2022). Incentives, wages, and retention among direct support professionals: National Core Indicators Staff Stability Survey. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 60(2), 113–127. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-60.2.113

Chapter 11: Teach the Unwritten Rules

  1. Intercultural Competency Training requirement. Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. (n.d.-a ). Hire through the Atlantic Immigration Program: Take your required training. Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/immigrate-canada/atlantic-immigration/hire-immigrant/employer-training.html

  2. Culture-specific training for government employees. Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. (n.d.-b ). Training in intercultural effectiveness helps those working directly with Syrian refugees. Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/refugees/about-refugee-system/welcome-syrian-refugees/stories/training-intercultural-effectiveness.html

  3. Cross-cultural competency sessions for employers. Hire Immigrants Ottawa. (n.d.). HIO’s cross-cultural competency training program. https://www.hireimmigrantsottawa.ca/for-employers/what/training-program/

  4. Cultural competency workshops. Centre for Newcomers. (n.d.). Professional development. https://www.centrefornewcomers.ca/pd

  5. Culturally sensitive working conditions for Arab women. Read, J. G. (2004). Cultural influences on immigrant women’s labor force participation: The Arab-American case. International Migration Review, 38(1), 52–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2004.tb00188.x

  6. Integration behaviours in frontline service. Gaur, S. S., Sharma, P., Herjanto, H., & Kingshott, R. P. J. (2017). Impact of frontline service employees’ acculturation behaviors on customer satisfaction and commitment in intercultural service encounters. Journal of Service Theory and Practice, 27(6), 1105–1121. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSTP-08-2016-0138

Chapter 12: The First Six Months

  1. Stages of adjustment and mastery. Oberg, K. (1960). Cultural shock: Adjustment to new cultural environments. Practical Anthropology, os-7(4), 177–182. https://doi.org/10.1177/009182966000700405

Chapter 13: Adapt Without Disappearing

  1. Cultural awareness, confidence and control in service encounters. Tam, J. L. M., Sharma, P., & Kim, N. (2014). Examining the role of attribution and intercultural competence in intercultural service encounters. Journal of Services Marketing, 28(2), 159–170. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSM-12-2012-0266

Chapter 14: Now We Can See the Whole System

  1. Acculturation as a dynamic process. Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 5–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01087.x

  2. SERVQUAL dimensions. Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L. (1988). SERVQUAL: A multiple-item scale for measuring consumer perceptions of service quality. Journal of Retailing, 64(1), 12–40.

  3. Cultural dimensions as sensitizing concepts. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Sage.

Chapter 9 (data)

  1. Population-weighted Hofstede scores were compiled from The Culture Factor country data and 2023 World Bank and United Nations population estimates. Full country-by-country figures appear in A Note on the Research. The Culture Factor. (n.d.-a). Country comparison tool. https://www.theculturefactor.com/country-comparison-tool

Part IV: When the Machine Becomes the Manager

  1. Cultural values expressed by five widely used GPT models, and their distance from African-Islamic cultural values. Tao, Y., Viberg, O., Baker, R. S., & Kizilcec, R. F. (2024). Cultural bias and cultural alignment of large language models. PNAS Nexus, 3(9), pgae346. https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae346

  2. Cultural bias arising from the predominance of English-language training corpora, and the modelling of cultural difference in LLMs. Li, C., Chen, M., Wang, J., Sitaram, S., & Xie, X. (2024). CultureLLM: Incorporating cultural differences into large language models. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 37.

  3. Culturally aware training and fine-grained cultural reward modelling. Feng, R., Gao, S., Chen, X., Chen, L., & Shang, S. (2025). CulFiT: A fine-grained cultural-aware LLM training paradigm via multilingual critique data synthesis. In Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics.

  4. Bias in datasets, and pre-processing, in-processing and post-processing mitigation. Mehrabi, N., Morstatter, F., Saxena, N., Lerman, K., & Galstyan, A. (2021). A survey on bias and fairness in machine learning. ACM Computing Surveys, 54(6), Article 115.

  5. Algorithmic discrimination in search and information systems. Noble, S. U. (2018). Algorithms of oppression: How search engines reinforce racism. NYU Press.

  6. Fairness definitions, methods and tools in AI-based hiring. Mujtaba, D. F., & Mahapatra, N. R. (2019). Ethical considerations in AI-based recruitment. In 2019 IEEE International Symposium on Technology and Society (ISTAS).

  7. Global AI ethics guidelines and principles of transparency and accountability. Jobin, A., Ienca, M., & Vayena, E. (2019). The global landscape of AI ethics guidelines. Nature Machine Intelligence, 1(9), 389–399.

  8. Independent auditing as a route to algorithmic accountability. Birhane, A., Steed, R., Ojewale, V., Vecchione, B., & Raji, I. D. (2024). AI auditing: The broken bus on the road to AI accountability.

  9. Disaggregated reporting of outcomes by group, and risk management across the AI lifecycle. OECD. (2023). Advancing accountability in AI (OECD Digital Economy Papers No. 349). OECD Publishing.

  10. Training vision-language models to recognize culturally significant signals across countries and regions. Liu, S., Jin, Y., Li, C., Wong, D. F., Wen, Q., Sun, L., Chen, H., Xie, X., & Wang, J. (2025). CultureVLM: Characterizing and improving cultural understanding of vision-language models for over 100 countries.

  11. Cross-cultural variation in expressive behaviour and intercultural affect recognition. Mathur, L., Adolphs, R., & Matarić, M. J. (2022). Towards intercultural affect recognition: Audio-visual affect recognition in the wild across six cultures.